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Dualism (Philosophy of Mind)
Dualism attempts to answer the mind-body problem, which asks what the relationship is between an individual’s physical properties and an individual’s mental properties.
According to dualism, the mind and body are two separate things. While the body (or matter) is the physical substance that an individual is made of, the mind (or soul) is a nonphysical substance that exists apart from the body and includes consciousness.
There are three major types of dualism:
Substance Dualism: Substance can be broken down into two categories: mental and material. According to René Descartes, who made this theory famous, the material substance does not have the ability to think, and the mental substance has no extension in the physical world.
Property Dualism: The mind and body exist as properties of one material substance. In other words, consciousness is the result of matter being organized in a specific way (like the human brain).
Predicate Dualism: In order to make sense of the world, there needs to be more than one predicate (the way we go about describing a proposition’s subject). According to predicate dualism, mental predicates cannot be reduced into physical predicates. For example, in the sentence “Troy is annoying,” one cannot reduce the act of “being annoying” into a physical thing (predicate). “Annoying” cannot be defined by its structure or composition, and it can look different in different situations.
ARGUMENTS FOR DUALISM
There are several arguments that support the claims of dualism. In particular, dualism is very popular among those who believe in the existence of a soul that is separate from one’s physical body.
The Subjective Argument : One of the more famous arguments supporting substance dualism is the subjective argument. This argues that mental events feature subjective qualities, while physical events do not. For a mental event, one can ask questions about what something looks, feels, or sounds like. However, those sensations cannot be reduced into a physical event. Even though you can see, touch, or hear physical events, when you are describing a sensation such as “what something feels like,” you cannot actually reduce it to something physical. It is still a sensation with subjective qualities.
The Special Sciences Argument : This argument supports the notion of predicate dualism. If predicate dualism is true, then “special sciences” must exist. These sciences should not be able to be reduced any further using the laws of physics. Because psychology, which cannot be further reduced by the laws of physics, exists as a form of science, this must imply that the mind exists. Even the science of meteorology proves the special science argument to be true, because studying weather patterns is only of interest to people, and therefore, this science presupposes that the mind cares and is interested in weather. Therefore, in order for the material world to be perceived mentally, there must be a perspective from the mind about the material world.
Argument from Reason : According to the argument from reason, if our thoughts are simply the result of physical causes, then there is no reason to believe that these thoughts are based on reason or are rational. A physical material is not rational, and yet we as humans have reason. Therefore, the mind must not simply be from a material source.
ARGUMENTS AGAINST DUALISM
There are many arguments against dualism. Many of these arguments fall under a broader belief known as monism, which states that instead of two separate substances, the mind and body are part of one substance.
Monism in a Nutshell
Idealistic Monism (also known as Idealism): The only substance that exists is the mental substance (consciousness).
Materialistic Monism (also known as Physicalism): The physical world is the only reality, and anything mental stems from the physical.
Neutral Monism: There exists one substance that is neither physical nor mental, but is where physical and mental attributes come from.
Argument from Brain Damage : This argument against dualism questions how the theory works when, for example, brain damage from trauma to the head, pathological diseases, or drug abuse leads to a compromised mental ability. If the mental and the material truly were separate from one another, the mental should be unaffected by such events. In fact, scientists have discovered that there is most likely a causal relationship between the mind and the brain, and that by manipulating or damaging the brain, mental states are affected.
Causal Interaction : The argument of causal interaction questions how something immaterial (the mental) has the ability to affect the material. It is still very unclear where such interactions would occur. If you were to burn your finger, for example, a chain of events would unfold. First, the skin is burned; then nerve endings become stimulated. Eventually, the peripheral nerves lead to a specific part of the brain, and the result is the feeling of pain. However, if dualism were true, pain would not be able to be located in a particular spot. However, the pain is located in a particular spot, the finger. Additionally, the theory of causal interaction deals with how an interaction occurs between the mental and the physical. Let’s say you move your arm up and down. To do so, you first have the intention to move your arm up and down (the mental event). The message travels via neurons, and then you move your arm up and down. However, the mental event of intending to move your arm is not enough to move your arm. There must be a force that makes the neurons send the message. Dualism lacks the explanation of how a nonphysical event can create a physical event.
Argument from Simplicity : Perhaps the most common argument against dualism is also the simplest. The argument from simplicity ponders why someone would attempt to explain the existence of the mind and body in two parts when doing so in one part is simpler.
This is expressed through the principle known as “Occam’s razor,” which states that, when explaining a phenomenon, one shouldn’t multiply entities beyond what is necessary. Therefore, it should be rational for humans to want the simplest explanation.
While parts of dualism have their strengths, there is no denying that dualism does not answer all of the questions that arise from the mind-body problem.
According to dualism, the mind and body are two separate things. While the body (or matter) is the physical substance that an individual is made of, the mind (or soul) is a nonphysical substance that exists apart from the body and includes consciousness.
There are three major types of dualism:
Substance Dualism: Substance can be broken down into two categories: mental and material. According to René Descartes, who made this theory famous, the material substance does not have the ability to think, and the mental substance has no extension in the physical world.
Property Dualism: The mind and body exist as properties of one material substance. In other words, consciousness is the result of matter being organized in a specific way (like the human brain).
Predicate Dualism: In order to make sense of the world, there needs to be more than one predicate (the way we go about describing a proposition’s subject). According to predicate dualism, mental predicates cannot be reduced into physical predicates. For example, in the sentence “Troy is annoying,” one cannot reduce the act of “being annoying” into a physical thing (predicate). “Annoying” cannot be defined by its structure or composition, and it can look different in different situations.
ARGUMENTS FOR DUALISM
There are several arguments that support the claims of dualism. In particular, dualism is very popular among those who believe in the existence of a soul that is separate from one’s physical body.
The Subjective Argument : One of the more famous arguments supporting substance dualism is the subjective argument. This argues that mental events feature subjective qualities, while physical events do not. For a mental event, one can ask questions about what something looks, feels, or sounds like. However, those sensations cannot be reduced into a physical event. Even though you can see, touch, or hear physical events, when you are describing a sensation such as “what something feels like,” you cannot actually reduce it to something physical. It is still a sensation with subjective qualities.
The Special Sciences Argument : This argument supports the notion of predicate dualism. If predicate dualism is true, then “special sciences” must exist. These sciences should not be able to be reduced any further using the laws of physics. Because psychology, which cannot be further reduced by the laws of physics, exists as a form of science, this must imply that the mind exists. Even the science of meteorology proves the special science argument to be true, because studying weather patterns is only of interest to people, and therefore, this science presupposes that the mind cares and is interested in weather. Therefore, in order for the material world to be perceived mentally, there must be a perspective from the mind about the material world.
Argument from Reason : According to the argument from reason, if our thoughts are simply the result of physical causes, then there is no reason to believe that these thoughts are based on reason or are rational. A physical material is not rational, and yet we as humans have reason. Therefore, the mind must not simply be from a material source.
ARGUMENTS AGAINST DUALISM
There are many arguments against dualism. Many of these arguments fall under a broader belief known as monism, which states that instead of two separate substances, the mind and body are part of one substance.
Monism in a Nutshell
Idealistic Monism (also known as Idealism): The only substance that exists is the mental substance (consciousness).
Materialistic Monism (also known as Physicalism): The physical world is the only reality, and anything mental stems from the physical.
Neutral Monism: There exists one substance that is neither physical nor mental, but is where physical and mental attributes come from.
Argument from Brain Damage : This argument against dualism questions how the theory works when, for example, brain damage from trauma to the head, pathological diseases, or drug abuse leads to a compromised mental ability. If the mental and the material truly were separate from one another, the mental should be unaffected by such events. In fact, scientists have discovered that there is most likely a causal relationship between the mind and the brain, and that by manipulating or damaging the brain, mental states are affected.
Causal Interaction : The argument of causal interaction questions how something immaterial (the mental) has the ability to affect the material. It is still very unclear where such interactions would occur. If you were to burn your finger, for example, a chain of events would unfold. First, the skin is burned; then nerve endings become stimulated. Eventually, the peripheral nerves lead to a specific part of the brain, and the result is the feeling of pain. However, if dualism were true, pain would not be able to be located in a particular spot. However, the pain is located in a particular spot, the finger. Additionally, the theory of causal interaction deals with how an interaction occurs between the mental and the physical. Let’s say you move your arm up and down. To do so, you first have the intention to move your arm up and down (the mental event). The message travels via neurons, and then you move your arm up and down. However, the mental event of intending to move your arm is not enough to move your arm. There must be a force that makes the neurons send the message. Dualism lacks the explanation of how a nonphysical event can create a physical event.
Argument from Simplicity : Perhaps the most common argument against dualism is also the simplest. The argument from simplicity ponders why someone would attempt to explain the existence of the mind and body in two parts when doing so in one part is simpler.
This is expressed through the principle known as “Occam’s razor,” which states that, when explaining a phenomenon, one shouldn’t multiply entities beyond what is necessary. Therefore, it should be rational for humans to want the simplest explanation.
While parts of dualism have their strengths, there is no denying that dualism does not answer all of the questions that arise from the mind-body problem.
